"The Eparchaean Unconformity of Tirumala: A Geological Time Capsule of Earth's Ancient History"

The Eparchaean Unconformity of Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh: A Geological Wonder

 

Images: © myself ↑

The Eparchaean Unconformity, situated in the Tirumala hills of Andhra Pradesh, India, stands as one of the most remarkable geological formations globally. This site provides a rare insight into Earth's ancient past, encapsulating a significant time gap between two distinct rock layers. Recognised as an essential geological monument by the Geological Survey of India (GSI), it serves as a testament to Earth's dynamic processes spanning billions of years.

Understanding the Eparchaean Unconformity

An unconformity in geological terms denotes a surface indicating a discontinuity in the geological record, representing a period of erosion or non-deposition. The Eparchaean Unconformity is particularly noteworthy as it encapsulates a staggering time gap of nearly 800 million years, distinguishing the ancient Archaean granite gneisses from the relatively younger Proterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Cuddapah Supergroup.

Location and Geological Importance

Image Courtesy :  Geological Survey of India ↓

 Image: © myself ↑

The Eparchaean Unconformity is prominently visible near Srivari Mettu and UP Tirumala Ghat Roads in the Tirupati region of Andhra Pradesh. Being a part of the Eastern Ghats, it holds immense significance in unravelling India's geological past. The site is characterised by a distinct contrast between two rock formations:

Geographical Coordinates

• Latitude: 13.6784° N, Longitude: 79.3476° E

• Alternate Coordinates:

  • 13°30′00″N 79°22′30″E / 13.50°N 79.375°E

  • 13°27′N 79°45′E / 13.45°N 79.75°E

• Elevation: Approximately 800–900 metres above sea level

Rock Formations

1. Archaean Rocks (Granite Gneiss): These rocks, dating back more than 2.5 billion years, belong to the ancient Peninsular Gneissic Complex. They formed under intense heat and pressure deep within Earth's crust and contain valuable minerals such as feldspar and quartz.

2. Proterozoic Rocks (Cuddapah Supergroup): These sedimentary rocks, comprising quartzites and shales, are approximately 1.6 billion years old. They were deposited in shallow marine and fluvial environments after extensive erosion of the pre-existing basement rocks, offering clues to past climatic conditions.

Formation Process

The formation of this unconformity is the outcome of a prolonged and intricate geological history involving multiple phases of tectonic activity, erosion, and sediment deposition. The process unfolded as follows:

1. Crystallisation of the Archaean Basement (Over 2.5 billion years ago): This earliest phase saw the formation of granitic rocks through deep-seated magmatic processes.

2. Erosion and Weathering (2.5 - 1.6 billion years ago): Over an extensive period of 800 million years, these ancient rocks were subjected to relentless weathering, erosion, and denudation, resulting in a vast land surface devoid of fresh deposits.

3. Deposition of the Cuddapah Supergroup (Around 1.6 billion years ago): With the initiation of sedimentary processes, younger rocks were deposited on this eroded surface, marking the commencement of the Proterozoic era. Fossilised microbial life forms have been identified in some of these layers, shedding light on early biological activity.

4. Tectonic Movements and Uplift: The region witnessed several episodes of crustal movements and uplift, contributing to the distinct structural features observed today.

Illustration: Understanding the Eparchaean Unconformity

 

Image: © myself ↑

To simplify the concept, imagine the Earth's surface as a book with missing pages. The Eparchaean Unconformity represents the gap between two sections of the book—where older chapters (Archaean rocks) were heavily eroded before new pages (Proterozoic rocks) were written on top. This missing section represents millions of years of Earth's history lost due to erosion.

Key Features of the above Illustration:

• Lower Layer: Ancient Archaean granite gneisses, forming the basement rock.

• Unconformity Line: A distinct wavy boundary, representing the long period of erosion.

• Upper Layer: Younger Proterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Cuddapah Supergroup.

• Arrows Indicating Erosion: Showing how older rocks were worn away before new sedimentary deposits formed.

The illustration helps to visualise how a vast period of Earth's history is recorded in rock formations and the immense timescales involved.

Scientific and Educational Value

The Eparchaean Unconformity functions as an invaluable natural laboratory for geologists, students, and researchers. It plays a crucial role in comprehending the Precambrian to Proterozoic transition, offering evidence of ancient climatic conditions, sea-level fluctuations, and tectonic activities that shaped the Indian subcontinent.

Geologists study this site to:

• Decode the Earth's evolutionary trajectory.

• Understand the repercussions of prolonged erosion on basement rocks.

• Investigate the conditions that facilitated the deposition of the Cuddapah Supergroup.

• Assess the region's mineral potential.

• Analyse the impact of plate tectonics in the formation of the Eastern Ghats.

• Study ancient weathering processes and their influence on subsequent rock formations.

Recognition as a Geological Monument

Due to its exceptional geological importance, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) has designated the Eparchaean Unconformity as a National Geological Monument. This recognition aims to safeguard this natural heritage and enhance awareness of India's ancient geological past. Additionally, it serves as a reference point for comparative studies on global unconformities.

  

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இந்து மகா சமுத்திரம் என்ற பெயர் காரணம்

என் முகநூல் பக்கத்தில் கடந்த 2022 ஆம் ஆண்டு அக்டோபர் மாதம் 5 ஆம் தேதி நான் இட்ட பதிவின் மறு பதிவு இது. 

அரேபியர் இந்த பகுதி பெருங்கடலுக்கு வைத்த பெயர் இது. பாண்டியர், சோழர்கள், சேரர்கள் இந்த பகுதி கடலை அப்படி ஒரு கட்டுபாட்டில் வைத்து இருந்தார்கள். அவர்கள் இந்துக்கள். அரபி, துருக்கிய ஏன் பல மத்திய ஆசியா, மற்றும் கொரியா, சீன மொழிகளில் நமக்கு ஹிந்த் என்று பெயர். அதில் இருந்து வந்தது ஹிந்துஸ்தான். இந்தியா என்ற பெயர் அதில் இருந்து வந்த இண்டிகா என்ற கிரேக்க சொல்லின் ஆங்கில தழுவல் இந்தியா. உலகில் ஒரு  இனத்தின் மற்றும் நாட்டின் பெயரில் உள்ள ஒரே பெருங்கடல் இந்துமகா சமுத்திரம். பிரெஞ்சு மொழியில் லாண்ட் L'Inde என்று கூறுவார்கள் இந்தியாவை.

சிந்து நதியை வைத்து அவர்கள் ஹிந்த் என்று அழைத்தார்கள். அரபிக் கடலை அரேபியர் இந்துக் கடல் அல்லது bahr alhind بحر الهند என்று அழைப்பர். அரபிக் கடல் என்பது இந்து மஹா கடலின் ஒரு பகுதி. இந்தியாவை அவர்கள் almuhit alhindiu المحيط الهندي என்று அழைத்தார்கள்.

இந்து மகா சமுத்திரம் என்ற இன்றைய பெயர் (பொது வருடம் CE) 1515 ஆம் வருடம் லத்தின் மொழியில் Oceanus Orientalis Indicus ("Indian Eastern Ocean") என்று கொலம்பஸ்/ வாஸ்கோடகாமா காலத்தில் இந்த கடலை ஐரோப்பியர் அழைத்தனர், அதன் ஆங்கில  மொழி பெயர்ப்பு தான் இந்தியன் ஓசியன் என்ற இன்றைய சொற் பதம்.

சமஸ்கிரத மொழியில் இந்த கடலுக்கு பெயர் இரத்நாகரா Ratnakara. இலங்கையில் உள்ள ஒரு ஊர் பெயர் இரத்னாபுர. இரத்னாகரா என்றால் இரத்தினங்கள் என்று பெயர்.  இன்றும் இலங்கை இரத்னாபுர பகுதியில் இரத்தினங்கள்  கிடைக்கும்.  இலங்கையில்  பலர் வைத்துக்கொள்ளும் இணை பெயர் இரத்னாகரா.

The Indian Astronauts

The Bharatiya Prime Minister Narendra Damodar Das

 

Modi inaugurates three space projects startup. Ganganyan orbital mission will be the first. 

1. Indian Space Station 

2. Indian landing on the moon

3. Ganganyan orbital mission.

Indian Astronauts will be called ' Vyomanauts'

A. Vyomanaut 1. GROUP CAPTAIN PRASANT NAIR

B. Vyomanaut 2. GROUP CAPTAIN AJIT KRISHNAN

C. Vyomanaut 3. GROUP CAPTAIN ANGAD PRATAP

D. Vyomanaut 4. WING COMMANDER SHUBANSHU SHUKLA

They will be going to space by 2025 end from Bharat. 

NEUTRINOS - What are they?

Exploring Neutrinos: A Fascinating Journey Through Science

Introduction

The mysterious world of neutrinos has intrigued scientists for decades. This blog aims to bring together the exciting discoveries and research about these elusive particles, drawing from various scientific publications, research institutions and government laboratories. All the information shared here is publicly accessible and offers a glimpse into the fascinating study of neutrinos.

The Discovery

Back in 1956, scientists made a groundbreaking discovery by experimentally identifying the neutrino. In the Standard Model of Particle Physics, the neutrino is a particle that stands out due to its tiny size, neutral charge and elusive nature. Neutrinos are the most abundant particles with mass in the universe. They are produced in processes like nuclear fusion in stars and radioactive decay in reactors. Even everyday items like bananas emit neutrinos because of the radioactive potassium in them. Despite their abundance, neutrinos rarely interact with matter. Trillions of neutrinos from the sun pass through our bodies every second, yet we don’t feel a thing.

Neutrinos were first theorised in 1930, but it took 26 years to confirm their existence experimentally. Today, scientists are keen to understand more about these particles, including their mass, how they interact with matter and whether they might be their own antiparticles. Some theories even suggest that neutrinos could help explain why the universe is made mostly of matter rather than antimatter after the Big Bang.

Neutrinos: The Ghost Particles

Neutrinos are part of a group of elementary particles called leptons and are often called "ghost particles" because of their ability to pass through matter almost without interaction. They are fundamental components of the universe, just like electrons, muons and taus. Wolfgang Pauli first proposed the existence of neutrinos in 1930 to explain energy discrepancies in radioactive beta decay, but it wasn't until 1956 that they were detected. The term "neutrino" was coined by Enrico Fermi in 1932 and later popularised by Edoardo Amaldi.

In 1942, Wang Ganchang suggested using beta capture for neutrino detection, leading to their eventual discovery by Clyde Cowan, Frederick Reines and others in 1956. This discovery earned them the Nobel Prize in 1995.

Properties of Neutrinos

Neutrinos are electrically neutral and have a very small mass compared to other subatomic particles like electrons or quarks. They interact mainly through the weak nuclear force, responsible for processes like beta decay and occasionally through gravity. Due to their rare interactions, detecting neutrinos is extremely challenging. Neutrinos come in three types—electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos—each associated with specific leptons. These types can change from one to another as neutrinos travel through space, indicating that they have mass.

How We Detect Neutrinos

Detecting neutrinos requires highly sensitive instruments due to their minimal interaction with matter. Various methods are used, including Cherenkov Radiation, Neutrino Capture and Inverse Beta Decay. Cherenkov Radiation is similar to a sonic boom but occurs when a particle exceeds the speed of light in a medium like heavy water (D2O). This phenomenon helps indicate the presence of neutrinos and can also suggest superluminal motion in certain theoretical contexts.

Cosmic Importance of Neutrinos

Neutrinos play a crucial role in many astrophysical processes. They are produced in large quantities during nuclear fusion in stars, supernovae and other high-energy cosmic events. Neutrinos from the sun help us understand solar fusion, while those from distant sources provide insights into the universe's most energetic phenomena, such as active galactic nuclei and gamma-ray bursts.

Unanswered Questions

Despite significant progress in neutrino research, many mysteries remain. The exact masses of neutrinos are still unknown, with experiments only providing upper limits. Neutrino oscillation shows they have mass, but precise measurements are elusive. Additionally, the imbalance between matter and antimatter in the universe suggests possible differences between neutrinos and their antimatter counterparts—antineutrinos. This is an area of active research in particle physics.

Conclusion

Neutrinos are among the most fascinating and mysterious particles in the Standard Model of particle physics. Studying them not only enhances our understanding of fundamental physics but also sheds light on the deeper workings of the universe, from cosmic dynamics to the essence of matter itself. As research continues, we can look forward to uncovering more secrets about these ghostly particles that play such a significant role in our universe.

 

Difference between an Air-Conditioner and an Air-Cooler

I am seeing lots of Air Coolers advertisements for many years. Many outlets are also selling them without giving an important reason. They're actually hiding those for their sales. 

 

Air Coolers are humidifiers technically. They induce humidity in dry areas like those places in interior like Salem, Vellore, Nagpur, Delhi etc. Where room AC won't help while a central AC can help. Interior areas have very less humidity, so they’ll feel hot. When we induce humidity, we feel a cooling effect as humidity goes up.

 

Whereas in coastal areas, air conditioners will help and work as they dehumidify the air. Because the coastal areas have lots of humidity, it needs to be reduced. When reduced, we feel a cooling effect as AC will also suck moisture on your skin. 

 

While a central AC is a different animal. It is a hybrid of Air cooler and an air-conditioner. 

 

One thing, if you have low or high blood pressure, have cardiac issues, please be careful when you come out of an AC room. Temperature difference between inside and outside during peak summer will be drastic. It will take time for your body to adjust. That gap may kill you as changes/ shift will be sudden & extreme and body will try to adjust by trying to rush blood on emergency to skin and brain. But it can't do that instantly. So heart is put onto maximum strain and it may lead to cardiac arrest or even a brain stroke. 

 

In 2000/2001 I experienced that physically. I was shopping in Spencer's. Mall was 22° C and immediate outside temperature was 43° C. A difference of almost 21° C, my body struggled to adjust and I was about to get knocked down unconscious. 

 

Especially people with comorbidities, aged should be careful in an air-conditioned environment. Same effect may be felt in reverse during winters.

 

The Air Conditioners maintain an ambient temperature of 20 to 24° C. During winters, many areas experience colder temperatures, the room temperature will be pretty warm and outside temperature will be cold. This difference in temperature may also induce similar health issues I marked above.   

 

In French the Air Conditioner is called CLIMATISEUR & for Air Coolers REFROIDISSEUR D’AIR which says their original intended usage and purpose.

Bangladesh Railway

Thanks Amar for original post in Facebook. Shared with permission.

The map of Bangladesh Railway network from the extract of Indian Railways map in the year 1991 (West Bengal and Assam states to Bangladesh cross border lines):

Interesting to note here that most of the border stations on the Indian side of Bengal to Bangladesh aren't functioning back in 1991. For example like #Gede (India)- Darshana (Bangladesh), #Petrapole (India)- Benapole (Bangladesh), #Singhabad (India)- Rohanpur (Bangladesh), #Haldibari (India)- Chilahati (Bangladesh), #Changrabandha ( Cooch Behar district, West Bengal- Burimari (in Lalmonirhat District of Rangpur Division is on the Bangladesh side of the border), Lalmanirhat- (Bangladesh)- #Gitaldaha (Cooch Behar district of West Bengal), #Bamanhat (Cooch Behar, West Bengal- #Golokganj (Dhubri district of Assam via Bhurungamari, Pateshwari, Sonahat through Bangladesh railway stations, Lalgola Ghat (India) to Godagari Ghat (Bangladesh via Padma river) and #Radhikapur- Birale. Presently Gede, India to Darshana, Bangladesh, Petrapole (India)- Benapole (Bangladesh) routes are fully operational while the Air-Conditioned Kolkata- Dhaka Maitri express via Gede and Kolkata- Khulna Air-Conditioned Bandhan express via Petrapole run through these lines. The Singhabad (India)- Rohanpur (Bangladesh) through to Rajshahi, 

Radhikapur (India)- Birale (Bangladesh) towards Parbatipur cross border lines are operational for goods train traffic and Haldibari (India)- Chilahati Bangladesh) line was abandoned at the time of the partition of Indian- subcontinent.

The distance between Haldibari railway station in West Bengal's Coochbehar district till the international border is 4.5 kilometres while that from Chilahati in northern Bangladesh till the zero point is around 7.5 kilometres. However, more than 95 per cent work of laying tracks on the Indian side of the Haldibari- Chilahati India-Bangladesh railway link project has been completed. The completion of the entire project depends on the pace with which tracks are laid on the Bangladesh side. Both Haldibari (India) and Chilahati (Bangladesh) stations were laid on the old broad gauge system between Siliguri and Calcutta, present day Kolkata that went through areas in present-day Bangladesh. During the partition of Indian sub-continent in the year 1947, Haldibari became a part of India while Chilahati got merged with East Pakistan. Nevertheless, the old Siliguri- Calcutta Main line continued to operate through erstwhile East Pakistan province till the 1965 India-Pakistan war, breaking all cross-border Railway connections in the Eastern corridor.

The cross border #MetreGauge Railway connections from West Bengal to Bangladesh.

Now the Metre Gauge network of Railway lines, connecting the Indian state of West Bengal with Bangladesh were #Radhikapur- Birale and #Changrabandha- Burimari branch line (part of Lalmonirhat- Malbazar line, was developed by the Bengal Dooars Railway in the closing years of the nineteenth century. With the partition of India in 1947, the Indian side of the line terminated at Changrabandha and the Pakistani side, later Bangladeshi side, at Burimari. Presently, Radhikapur- Birale- Parbatipur is converted to Broad Gauge while Changrabandha- Burimari section is permanently abandoned.

The other two Metre Gauge lines connecting Bangladesh with the Cooch Behar district of the Indian state of West Bengal were #Lalmanirhat- Mogalhat- Dharla River bridge- #Gitaldaha line and #Bamanhat- Golokganj line. #Geetaldaha is a defunct rail transit point on the India-Bangladesh border in Cooch Behar district of West Bengal. The corresponding point on the Bangladeshi side is Mogalhat railway station across the Dharla river in Lalmanirhat District. By the turn of the nineteenth century, Lalmonirhat had emerged as an important railway centre. The links were established with Assam, with the Golokganj- Fakiragram- Amingaon Port line coming up under Eastern Bengal Railway company. In pre-independence days, a 1,000 mm wide Metre Gauge line running via Radhikapur, Biral, Parbatipur, Kaunia Tista, Gitaldaha, Bamanhat and Golokganj connected Fakiragram in Assam with Katihar in Bihar. Thus, this section was the main line Railway passage, operated under the Metre Gauge system to reach Assam's Amingaon Port from Bihar's Semaria Ghat station, located on the banks of Ganges river.

Up to the nineteen sixties, there was a Railway link from West Bengal's Cooch Behar district to Assam's Dhubri district via Golokganj. It was then known as the Assam Line Railway Service, also connecting East Pakistan between Bamanhat and Golokganj, even after the partition. Sonahat is another defunct rail transit point on the abandoned Golokganj- Bamanhat section and it was once connected to Kurigram by a Metre Gauge line. The old Gitaldaha station across the Dharla river from the Mogalhat point was abandoned after the partition and there's a New Gitaldaha station built farther most north towards Bamanhat line. The main pair of Metre Gauge Assam Mail train ran from Katihar to Tinsukia Jn, as mentioned in the 1943 Time Table of Bradshaw India and got attached with its slip pair at Parbatipur Jn station, arriving from Calcutta. From Awadh to Assam, all connections existed via remote most regions of Eastern Bengal province. If to travel through Southern banks of Brahmaputra river and through the Eastern most frontier, the mainline route started from Chittagong Port while it traversed through the 'Barak Valley' hills in Assam province and to the Tinsukia district of Assam via Lumding.

So now the only cross border connection from Assam to Bangladesh, according to the 1991 map showing it abandoned is Mahishasan - Latu point. Mahisasan is a border railway station and a defunct railway transit facility point on the India-Bangladesh border in the Karimganj district of Assam. The corresponding station on the Bangladesh side is Shahbajpur (also known as Latu) in Sylhet District. The border station is linked to Karimganj 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) away. The Mahisasan- Shahbajpur route has not been operational since the 1965 war with Pakistan. However, the international trains ont eh Metre Gauge system were running from Kalaura in East Pakistan to Badarpur in the 1950s decade while the rake belonged to East Pakistan's Eastern Bengal Railway.

The two new cross border connections are about to come from the Tripura state, ie via Agartala to Gangasagar in Bangladesh and Belonia to Feni in Bangladesh. The 15.6-km railway link connects Gangasagar in Bangladesh to Nischintapur in India (10.6 km) and from Nischintapur to Agartala railway station (5.46 km). And if once the dual gauging in the eastern corridor of Bangladesh starts, there will be a direct train service introduced between Tripura's capital Agartala to Kolkata via Taangi, Jumna Rail bridge and Hardinge bridge. The work on the Indian side is in full swing and is expected to complete in the first half of 2021. Nischintapur will have a transhipment yard, the first in the first in the northeast and the passengers and goods coming from Bangladesh will be boarded here. `

Also note that there was no Bangabandhu Bridge over Jumna river, connecting the western and eastern halves of Bangladesh. The people residing in the remote dense areas of Bangladesh between West and East were served by the ferry services on the river. The ferry services or steamers between the West and East banks of rivers were operated across two stretches through the integrated Railway system. There were two major ferry points across the Jamuna river, one between Sirajganj Ghat (western banks of Jumna river) and Jogannathganj Ghat Eastern banks of Jumna river) and the other between Tistamukh Ghat and Bahadurabad Ghat. The Jogannathganj Ghat on the Eastern banks of river was connected on the Metre Gauge system of the Railways network while the western bank of the river was served by the Broad Gauge Railway lines via Ishurdi and through to Calcutta. The construction of the 4.8 kilometres (3.0 mi) Bangabandhu Bridge has completely changed the scope of communication systems in this part of the country.

The ferry system at both the Bahadurabad Ghat–Balashi Ghat and the Jagannathganj Ghat- Sirajganj Ghat was virtually closed. Only limited freight transportation continued on the Bahadurabad Ghat- Balashi section. Even that has been closed down in 2010 because of formation of shoal in the river. This line followed the old channel of the Brahmaputra River, right from its point of separation with the Jamuna down to the mouth of the Shitalakshya River, a branch of the Brahmaputra. Notice there is no #Joydebpur (Dhaka- #Mymensingh route)- Tangail and Bangabandhu East Line connection. The Bangabandhu Bridge was built in 1996-97. Upon its finishing stage, the Railways had laid a new Metre Gauge line from Bangabandhu East station to Taraknandi in the year 2008 while they abandoned Taraknandi- Joganathanganj Ghat Metre Gauge line on the banks of Jumna river.

Between Akhaura and Kalaura, Shaistaganj station has a branch line functioning to Hobiganj station as well as Kaluara- Latu line was likely running till the international border point. Presently both these branches are defunct transit points in Bangladesh.