"The Eparchaean Unconformity of Tirumala: A Geological Time Capsule of Earth's Ancient History"

The Eparchaean Unconformity of Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh: A Geological Wonder

 

Images: © myself ↑

The Eparchaean Unconformity, situated in the Tirumala hills of Andhra Pradesh, India, stands as one of the most remarkable geological formations globally. This site provides a rare insight into Earth's ancient past, encapsulating a significant time gap between two distinct rock layers. Recognised as an essential geological monument by the Geological Survey of India (GSI), it serves as a testament to Earth's dynamic processes spanning billions of years.

Understanding the Eparchaean Unconformity

An unconformity in geological terms denotes a surface indicating a discontinuity in the geological record, representing a period of erosion or non-deposition. The Eparchaean Unconformity is particularly noteworthy as it encapsulates a staggering time gap of nearly 800 million years, distinguishing the ancient Archaean granite gneisses from the relatively younger Proterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Cuddapah Supergroup.

Location and Geological Importance

Image Courtesy :  Geological Survey of India ↓

 Image: © myself ↑

The Eparchaean Unconformity is prominently visible near Srivari Mettu and UP Tirumala Ghat Roads in the Tirupati region of Andhra Pradesh. Being a part of the Eastern Ghats, it holds immense significance in unravelling India's geological past. The site is characterised by a distinct contrast between two rock formations:

Geographical Coordinates

• Latitude: 13.6784° N, Longitude: 79.3476° E

• Alternate Coordinates:

  • 13°30′00″N 79°22′30″E / 13.50°N 79.375°E

  • 13°27′N 79°45′E / 13.45°N 79.75°E

• Elevation: Approximately 800–900 metres above sea level

Rock Formations

1. Archaean Rocks (Granite Gneiss): These rocks, dating back more than 2.5 billion years, belong to the ancient Peninsular Gneissic Complex. They formed under intense heat and pressure deep within Earth's crust and contain valuable minerals such as feldspar and quartz.

2. Proterozoic Rocks (Cuddapah Supergroup): These sedimentary rocks, comprising quartzites and shales, are approximately 1.6 billion years old. They were deposited in shallow marine and fluvial environments after extensive erosion of the pre-existing basement rocks, offering clues to past climatic conditions.

Formation Process

The formation of this unconformity is the outcome of a prolonged and intricate geological history involving multiple phases of tectonic activity, erosion, and sediment deposition. The process unfolded as follows:

1. Crystallisation of the Archaean Basement (Over 2.5 billion years ago): This earliest phase saw the formation of granitic rocks through deep-seated magmatic processes.

2. Erosion and Weathering (2.5 - 1.6 billion years ago): Over an extensive period of 800 million years, these ancient rocks were subjected to relentless weathering, erosion, and denudation, resulting in a vast land surface devoid of fresh deposits.

3. Deposition of the Cuddapah Supergroup (Around 1.6 billion years ago): With the initiation of sedimentary processes, younger rocks were deposited on this eroded surface, marking the commencement of the Proterozoic era. Fossilised microbial life forms have been identified in some of these layers, shedding light on early biological activity.

4. Tectonic Movements and Uplift: The region witnessed several episodes of crustal movements and uplift, contributing to the distinct structural features observed today.

Illustration: Understanding the Eparchaean Unconformity

 

Image: © myself ↑

To simplify the concept, imagine the Earth's surface as a book with missing pages. The Eparchaean Unconformity represents the gap between two sections of the book—where older chapters (Archaean rocks) were heavily eroded before new pages (Proterozoic rocks) were written on top. This missing section represents millions of years of Earth's history lost due to erosion.

Key Features of the above Illustration:

• Lower Layer: Ancient Archaean granite gneisses, forming the basement rock.

• Unconformity Line: A distinct wavy boundary, representing the long period of erosion.

• Upper Layer: Younger Proterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Cuddapah Supergroup.

• Arrows Indicating Erosion: Showing how older rocks were worn away before new sedimentary deposits formed.

The illustration helps to visualise how a vast period of Earth's history is recorded in rock formations and the immense timescales involved.

Scientific and Educational Value

The Eparchaean Unconformity functions as an invaluable natural laboratory for geologists, students, and researchers. It plays a crucial role in comprehending the Precambrian to Proterozoic transition, offering evidence of ancient climatic conditions, sea-level fluctuations, and tectonic activities that shaped the Indian subcontinent.

Geologists study this site to:

• Decode the Earth's evolutionary trajectory.

• Understand the repercussions of prolonged erosion on basement rocks.

• Investigate the conditions that facilitated the deposition of the Cuddapah Supergroup.

• Assess the region's mineral potential.

• Analyse the impact of plate tectonics in the formation of the Eastern Ghats.

• Study ancient weathering processes and their influence on subsequent rock formations.

Recognition as a Geological Monument

Due to its exceptional geological importance, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) has designated the Eparchaean Unconformity as a National Geological Monument. This recognition aims to safeguard this natural heritage and enhance awareness of India's ancient geological past. Additionally, it serves as a reference point for comparative studies on global unconformities.

  

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The Indian Astronauts

The Bharatiya Prime Minister Narendra Damodar Das

 

Modi inaugurates three space projects startup. Ganganyan orbital mission will be the first. 

1. Indian Space Station 

2. Indian landing on the moon

3. Ganganyan orbital mission.

Indian Astronauts will be called ' Vyomanauts'

A. Vyomanaut 1. GROUP CAPTAIN PRASANT NAIR

B. Vyomanaut 2. GROUP CAPTAIN AJIT KRISHNAN

C. Vyomanaut 3. GROUP CAPTAIN ANGAD PRATAP

D. Vyomanaut 4. WING COMMANDER SHUBANSHU SHUKLA

They will be going to space by 2025 end from Bharat. 

NEUTRINOS - What are they?

Exploring Neutrinos: A Fascinating Journey Through Science

Introduction

The mysterious world of neutrinos has intrigued scientists for decades. This blog aims to bring together the exciting discoveries and research about these elusive particles, drawing from various scientific publications, research institutions and government laboratories. All the information shared here is publicly accessible and offers a glimpse into the fascinating study of neutrinos.

The Discovery

Back in 1956, scientists made a groundbreaking discovery by experimentally identifying the neutrino. In the Standard Model of Particle Physics, the neutrino is a particle that stands out due to its tiny size, neutral charge and elusive nature. Neutrinos are the most abundant particles with mass in the universe. They are produced in processes like nuclear fusion in stars and radioactive decay in reactors. Even everyday items like bananas emit neutrinos because of the radioactive potassium in them. Despite their abundance, neutrinos rarely interact with matter. Trillions of neutrinos from the sun pass through our bodies every second, yet we don’t feel a thing.

Neutrinos were first theorised in 1930, but it took 26 years to confirm their existence experimentally. Today, scientists are keen to understand more about these particles, including their mass, how they interact with matter and whether they might be their own antiparticles. Some theories even suggest that neutrinos could help explain why the universe is made mostly of matter rather than antimatter after the Big Bang.

Neutrinos: The Ghost Particles

Neutrinos are part of a group of elementary particles called leptons and are often called "ghost particles" because of their ability to pass through matter almost without interaction. They are fundamental components of the universe, just like electrons, muons and taus. Wolfgang Pauli first proposed the existence of neutrinos in 1930 to explain energy discrepancies in radioactive beta decay, but it wasn't until 1956 that they were detected. The term "neutrino" was coined by Enrico Fermi in 1932 and later popularised by Edoardo Amaldi.

In 1942, Wang Ganchang suggested using beta capture for neutrino detection, leading to their eventual discovery by Clyde Cowan, Frederick Reines and others in 1956. This discovery earned them the Nobel Prize in 1995.

Properties of Neutrinos

Neutrinos are electrically neutral and have a very small mass compared to other subatomic particles like electrons or quarks. They interact mainly through the weak nuclear force, responsible for processes like beta decay and occasionally through gravity. Due to their rare interactions, detecting neutrinos is extremely challenging. Neutrinos come in three types—electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos—each associated with specific leptons. These types can change from one to another as neutrinos travel through space, indicating that they have mass.

How We Detect Neutrinos

Detecting neutrinos requires highly sensitive instruments due to their minimal interaction with matter. Various methods are used, including Cherenkov Radiation, Neutrino Capture and Inverse Beta Decay. Cherenkov Radiation is similar to a sonic boom but occurs when a particle exceeds the speed of light in a medium like heavy water (D2O). This phenomenon helps indicate the presence of neutrinos and can also suggest superluminal motion in certain theoretical contexts.

Cosmic Importance of Neutrinos

Neutrinos play a crucial role in many astrophysical processes. They are produced in large quantities during nuclear fusion in stars, supernovae and other high-energy cosmic events. Neutrinos from the sun help us understand solar fusion, while those from distant sources provide insights into the universe's most energetic phenomena, such as active galactic nuclei and gamma-ray bursts.

Unanswered Questions

Despite significant progress in neutrino research, many mysteries remain. The exact masses of neutrinos are still unknown, with experiments only providing upper limits. Neutrino oscillation shows they have mass, but precise measurements are elusive. Additionally, the imbalance between matter and antimatter in the universe suggests possible differences between neutrinos and their antimatter counterparts—antineutrinos. This is an area of active research in particle physics.

Conclusion

Neutrinos are among the most fascinating and mysterious particles in the Standard Model of particle physics. Studying them not only enhances our understanding of fundamental physics but also sheds light on the deeper workings of the universe, from cosmic dynamics to the essence of matter itself. As research continues, we can look forward to uncovering more secrets about these ghostly particles that play such a significant role in our universe.

 

Difference between an Air-Conditioner and an Air-Cooler

I am seeing lots of Air Coolers advertisements for many years. Many outlets are also selling them without giving an important reason. They're actually hiding those for their sales. 

 

Air Coolers are humidifiers technically. They induce humidity in dry areas like those places in interior like Salem, Vellore, Nagpur, Delhi etc. Where room AC won't help while a central AC can help. Interior areas have very less humidity, so they’ll feel hot. When we induce humidity, we feel a cooling effect as humidity goes up.

 

Whereas in coastal areas, air conditioners will help and work as they dehumidify the air. Because the coastal areas have lots of humidity, it needs to be reduced. When reduced, we feel a cooling effect as AC will also suck moisture on your skin. 

 

While a central AC is a different animal. It is a hybrid of Air cooler and an air-conditioner. 

 

One thing, if you have low or high blood pressure, have cardiac issues, please be careful when you come out of an AC room. Temperature difference between inside and outside during peak summer will be drastic. It will take time for your body to adjust. That gap may kill you as changes/ shift will be sudden & extreme and body will try to adjust by trying to rush blood on emergency to skin and brain. But it can't do that instantly. So heart is put onto maximum strain and it may lead to cardiac arrest or even a brain stroke. 

 

In 2000/2001 I experienced that physically. I was shopping in Spencer's. Mall was 22° C and immediate outside temperature was 43° C. A difference of almost 21° C, my body struggled to adjust and I was about to get knocked down unconscious. 

 

Especially people with comorbidities, aged should be careful in an air-conditioned environment. Same effect may be felt in reverse during winters.

 

The Air Conditioners maintain an ambient temperature of 20 to 24° C. During winters, many areas experience colder temperatures, the room temperature will be pretty warm and outside temperature will be cold. This difference in temperature may also induce similar health issues I marked above.   

 

In French the Air Conditioner is called CLIMATISEUR & for Air Coolers REFROIDISSEUR D’AIR which says their original intended usage and purpose.

Ancient Indian Inventions

INDIA’S SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE WORLD

* Few discoveries were also later done by some westerners

*** Later known as or known to be

# Later by Sir Isaac Newton 1642-1727 later known as Newton’s Law of Motion

# Later confirmed by Galileo Galilei 1564-1642

## More refinement

1. Discovery and use of Zero: Pingalacharya - 200BC

2. Loans and Interests: Vishnusmruthi - 100BC

3. Charging Interests: Vishnusmruthi - 100BC

4. Pythagorus Theorem *: Boudhayana - 700BC

5. Binomial Theorem *: Pingalacharya - 200 BC

6. Geometry in Sulbusutra – II: Boudhayana - 700BC

7. Rules of Bodies in Motion * #: Aryabatta 1 - 499AD

8. Arc and Chord: Aryabatta 1 - 499AD

9. Circle – Value of Phi: Aryabatta 1 - 499AD

9A. Circle – Value of Phi ##: Baskaracharya 1 - 628 AD

10. Triangles: Aryabatta 1 - 499 AD

11. Rotation of Earth II *#: Aryabatta 1 - 499AD

12. Eclipse 1: Aryabatta 1 - 499 AD

13. Four Quadrants of Earth: Aryabatta 1 -499 AD

14. Nrushiysjanam: Aryabatta 1 -499AD

15. Day Diameter: Panchasiddhantika 4 - 505 AD

16. Meridian and Time: Varahamihira

17. Knowledge of Infinity: Baskaracharya 11 in 600 AD and refined by Bharmaguptha in 1148 AD same were republished by Albert Einstein 1879-1955

18. Use of Ratio and Proportion: Baskaracharya 1 – 628 AD

19. Use of Fractions: Baskaracharya 1 – 628 AD

20. Partnership and Shares: Baskaracharya 1 – 628 AD

21. Progression of Type 1 Sq +2Sq +3Sq + 4Sq: Bhaskaracharya 1 - 628 AD

22. Progression of Type 1Cu + 2C+3Cu+ 4Cu: Bhaskarachrya 1 – 628 AD

23. Triangles (Quiz) Baskara 1 – 628 AD

24. Rotation of Earth 1: Bharmaguptha – 629 AD

25. Place Values 1: Vyasa Bhashya to Yoga Sutra – 650 AD

26. Parallax II: Lallacharya – 700 AD

27. Parallax III: Lallacharya – 700 AD

28. Apogee, Perigee and Orbit of Earth: Lallacharya – 700 AD

29. Appearances of Circumference of Earth: Lallacharya – 700 AD

30. Shape of Earth: Lallacharya – 700 AD

31. Globe: Varahamihira – 505 AD

32. Meridian and Time: Baskara 1 – 628 AD

33. Eclipse 11: Lallacharya – 700 AD

34. Eclipse 111: Lallacharya – 700 AD

35. Angular Dimensions: Vateswara – 880 AD

36. Horizon: Vateswara – 880 AD

37. Astronomical Definitions: Vateswara – 880 AD

38. Equator: Vateswara – 880 AD

39. 6 o’ Clock Circle: Vateswara – 880 AD

40. Circle of Diurnal Moon: Vateswara – 880 AD

41. Day Radius: Vateswara – 880 AD

42. Ecliptic: Vateswara – 880 AD

43. Setting point of Ecliptic: Vateswara – 880 AD

44. Rising – Setting line: Vateswara – 880 AD

45. Day Radius and Earth sine: Vateswara – 880 AD

46. Sun’s Prime Vertical: Vateswara – 880 AD

47. Progression of Type En + En Sq + En Cu: Sreedharacharya – 900 AD

48. First Degree Indeterminate Equation: Sreedharacharya – 900 AD

49. Newton Gauss: Vateswara – 904 AD (Later by Newton in 1670)

50. First Order Equation – II: Sreedharacharya – 990 AD

51. Equations of Higher Order -1: Sreedharacharya – 990 AD

52. Permutations and Combinations -1: Sridaracharya – 990 AD

53. Interest Calculation: Sreedharacharya – 990 Ad

54. Meeting place of the two surfaces: Aryabatta 1 – 499 AD

55. Meridian: Sankaranarayana 1 – 950 AD

56. Eclipse -1: Sankaranarayana 1 – 950 AD

57. Knowledge of Infinity: Bharmaguptha & Baskaracharya II – 600 & 1148 AD

58. Permutations and Combination II: Baskaracharya II – 1114 AD

59. Calculations with Zero: Sripati – 1039 AD

60. First Order Equation -1: Bhaskaracharya II- 1114 AD

61. Equations of higher Order –II: Bhaskaracharya II – 1114 AD

62. Area of Circle and Sphere: Baskaracharya II- 1114 AD

63. Polygonal: Baskara II – 1114 AD

64. Length of Arc – Chord: Baskara II – 1114 AD

65. Arc and Arrow: Baskara II- 1114 AD

66. Volumes of Cones: Baskara II – 1114 AD

67. Gravity: Baskara II – 1114 AD

68. Use of Average Values: Baskaracharya II – 1150 AD

69. Gregory’s calender: Madhava – 1350 AD (in 1632 by Pope Ugo Buoncompagni Gregory XIII)

70. *** De Molvre’s (1650 AD) Approximation: Madhavacharya – 1350 AD

71. ***Lhuiler’s (1782 AD) Formula: Madhavacharya – 1350 AD

72. *** Lebnitz (1673 AD) Power Series: Puthumana Somayaji – 1440 AD

73. ***Taylor (1685 AD) Series of Sine and Cosine: Nilakanta – 1444 AD

74. *** Newton’s Infinite GP Convergent series: Nilakantha- 1444 AD

75. Somayaji’s Theorems: Puthumana Somayaji – 1450 AD

76. Arc & Chord: Puthumana Somayaji – 1450 AD

77. Sine, Cosine, Radius and Arc: Puthumana Somayaji – 1450 AD

78. *** Newton’s (1660 AD) Power Series: Puthumana Somayaji – 1450 AD

79. Velocity of Planets per Day: Puthumana Somayaji – 1450 AD

80. Place Values – II: Sankaracharya – Year unknown

81. Tycho Brahe Reduction of Ecliptic: Achyuta Pisharoti – Year Unknown

82. Parallax -1: Lallacharya – Year Unknown

Inventions by Indian Scientists and later by Western Scientists:

Word in Red are by Indians and black by Westerners

1.    BHOUDHAYANA – 700 BC -> Pythagoras Theorem: Pythagoras – 500 BC

& Proof of Pythagoras Theorem: Euclid – 300 BC

2.    SUSRUTHA – 700 BC-> Cataract Operation : Joseph Lister – 1600 AD

lithotomy: Marios Santos – 1600 AD

Plastic Surgery: Joseph Constantine – 1814 AD

Nose Surgery: Gasparo Tag Cozzi – 1600 AD

Caesarean:

Amputation:

Organ Transplant:

Artificial implantation of organs:

Surgical Instruments:

Anastasia:

3.    KANAPPAR (Year Not known) : Eye Transplant

4.    GOUTHAMA - 300 BC -> *** Evolution Theory: Charles Robert Darwin – 1800 AD

*** Wave Nature of Sound: Hyghen – 1700 AD

5. KANAADA – 300 BC - > *** Atomic Theory: John Dalton (1766-1844) – 1822 AD

6. CHARAKA – 300 BC - > *** Blood Circulation: William Harvey (1578-1657) – 1656 AD

*** Micro Organisms: Lewis Pasture: 1822 AD

7. ARYABHATTA -1 - 476 AD ->

*** Spherical Shape of Earth: Galileo Galilei – 1564 AD

*** Revolution of Earth: Kepler – 1571 AD

*** Apogee: Kepler

*** Sine & Cosine: DeMolvre’s

*** Diameter of Earth: Copernicus – 1473 AD

*** Value of Pie: Lindemann – 1882 AD

*** Square Root Determination: Cantanew – 1546 AD

8. VARAHAMITRA – 505 AD ->

Comets: Haley – 1656 AD

9. BRAMAGUPTHA – 628 AD ->

*** Style’s Equation: Style – 1600 AD

*** Positive integral: DeMolvre’s – 1667 AD

*** Sterling Formula: Sterling – 1642 AD

*** Newton’s Sterling Interpolation: Newton / Sterling

*** Equation for Area for Cyclic Quadrilateral: W. Shell – 1619 AD

*** Equation for Radius of Cyclic Quadrilateral: Lhuiler – 1782 AD

*** Intermediate Equation of Second Degree: Langrange – 1560

10. GOVINDASWAMIN – 800 AD - >

*** Newton Gauss Forward:

*** Interpolation Formula: NEWTON / GAUSS

11. LALLACHARYA – 748 AD - >

*** Perigee: Kepler

12. VATESWARA – 860 AD ->

*** Newton Gauss Backward:

*** Interpolation Formula: Newton / Gauss

13. BHASKARA II - 1114 AD ->

*** Gravity: Newton

*** Cyclic Method: Galois – 1600 AD

*** Inverse Cyclic Method: Euler – 1600 AD

*** Differential Calculus: Newton

*** Rolle’s Theorem: Rolle – 1646 AD

*** Theory of Continued Fraction: Sanderson

*** Pellian Equation: Deoron Pale – 1660 AD

14. MADHAVA – 1350 AD - >

*** Taylor Sine Cosine Series: Taylor – 1685 AD

*** Lebnitz Series: Lednitz – 1642 AD

*** Gregory’s series of Arc: Gregory

*** Lednitz Infinite: Lebnitz

15. PARAMESWARA – 1360 AD ->

*** Lhuiler Formula: Lhuiler – 1782 AD

16. NILAKANTHA – 1440 AD - >

*** Infinite GP Series: Newton

*** Lebnitz Power Series: Lebnitz

17. SAYANA – 1400 AD - >

*** Velocity of Light: Newton – 1642 AD

18. PUTHUMANA SOMAYAJI – 1440 AD ->

*** DeMolvre’s Infinite Series: DeMolvre’s

19. ACHYUTHA PISHAROTI – 1530 AD - >

*** Tycho – Brahe Reduction: Tycho Brahe – 1546 AD

THESE ARE MY  CONSCIENTIOUS COLLECTION OF DATA FROM VARIOUS SOURCES.