Titbits’ from ancient Indian Astronomy

Revolution of planets:

In a yuga1, the eastward revolutions of the sun are 43, 20,000 2; of the Moon 5, 77, 53,336; of the Earth 3 1,58,22,37,500; of the Saturn 1,46,564; of the Jupiter 3,64,224 of the Mars 22,96,824; of the Mercury and Venus, the same as those of the Sun; of the Moon’s apogee, 4,88,219; of the sighrocca of Mercury, 1,7937,020; of the sighrocca of Venus 70,22,388; of the sighrocca of the other planets. The same as those of the Sun; of the Moon’s ascending node in the opposite direction (i.e. westward), 2, 32,226.4.

These revolutions commenced at the beginning of the sign Aries on Wednesday at Sunrise at Lanka ( when it was the commencement of the current yuga 5) .

The Moon’s apogee is that point of the Moon’s orbit which is at the remotest distance from the Earth and the Moon’s ascending node is that point of the ecliptic where the Moon crosses it in its northward motion.

The sighroccas of Mercury and Venus are the imaginary bodies which are supposed to revolve around the Earth with the heliocentric mean angular velocities of Mercury and Venus respectively, their directions from the Earth being always the same as those of the mean positions of Mercury and Venus from the Sun. It will thus mean that the revolutions of Mars, the sighrocca of Mercury, Jupiter, the sighrocca of Venus and Saturn given above are equal to the revolutions of Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn respectively round the sun.

The following table gives the revolutions of the Sun, The Moon and the planets along with their periods of one sidereal revolution. The sidereal periods according to the Greek Astronomer Ptolemy (AD circa 100 – circa 178) and the modern astronomers are also given for the sake of comparison.



Mean motion of planets                   sidereal period  in terms of days  planet  revolutions in
43,20,000 years                                            Aryabatta I          Ptolemy 6         Modern 7

SUN    43,20,000                                             365.25868           365.24666      365.25636

Moon   5,77,53,336                                           27.32167               27.32167       27.32166

Moon's Apogee    4,88,219                                3231.98708          3231.61655  3232.37543

Moon's asc. Node   2,32,226                               6794.74951         6796.45587     6793.39108

Mars                      22,96,824                              686.99974              686.94462       686.9797


Sighrocca of Mercury  1,79,37,020                        87.96988               87.96935             87.9693

Jupiter                              3,64,224                        4332.27217          4330.96064         4332.5887

Sighrocca of Venus              70,22,388                     224.69814              224.6989           224.7008

Saturn                                     1,46,564                    10766.06465       10749.94640        10759.201




The epoch of the planetary motion mentioned in the text marks the beginning of the current yuga and not the beginning of current Kalpa as was supposed by P.C. Sengupta. The current Kalpa according to Aryabatta I, started on Thursday 1,98,28,80,000 years or 7, 24,44,75,70,625 days before the beginning of the current Kaliyuga began on Friday, February 18, 3102 BC at sunrise at Linka (a hypothetical place on the equator where the meridian of Ujjain intersects it), which synchronised with the beginning of the light half of the lunar (synodic) month of Caitra or Chitra.
One thing that deservs special notice is the statement of the Earth’s rotations. Aryabatta I is perhaps, the earliest Astronomer in India who advanced the theory of the Earth’s rotation and gave the number of rotations that the Earth perfoms in a period of 43, 20,000 years. That period of one sidereal  rotation of the Earth according to Aryabatta I’s value is 23h56m 4s .1. The corresponding modern value is 23h 56m 4s.091. The accuracy of the Aryabatta I’s value is remarkable.

The final two parts of his Sanskrit magnum opus the Aryabhatiya, which were named the Kalakriya ("reckoning of time") and the Gola ("sphere"), state that the Earth is spherical and that its circumference is 4,967 yojanas, which in modern units is 39,968 km (24,835 mi), which is close to the current modern equatorial value of 40,075 km (24,901 mi).
Of the other Indian astronomers who upheld the theory of the Earht’s rotation mention may be made of Prthudaka (AD 860) and Makkibhatta (AD 1377). In the Skanda-Purana (1.1.31.71), too, the Earth is described as revolviong like a Bhramarika (Spinning top/potter’s wheel / whirlpool).

The commentators of the Aryabhatiya, who hold the opinion that the Earth is stationary, think that Aryabatta I states the rotations of the Earth because the asterisms, which revolve westward around the earth by the force of the pro-vector wind, see that the Earth rotates eastward.

These commentators indeed were helpless because Aryabatta I’s theory of the Earth rotation received a severe blow at the hands if Varahamihira (d. AD 587) and Brahmagupta ( AD 628 ) whose arguments against this theory could not refuted by any Indian astronomer.

It is note worthy that the Greek astronomer Ptolemy, following Aristotle (384 – 322 BC), believed that the Earth was stationary and adduced arguments in support of his view.

1. Yuga (Devanāgari: युग) in Hindu philosophy is the name of an 'epoch' or 'era' within a cycle of four ages. These are the Satya Yuga, the Treta Yuga, the Dvapara Yuga, and finally the Kali Yuga.
2. Suppose to be a total period of kali yuga
3. These are the rotations of the Earth eastward
4. These very revolutions, excepting those of the Earth are stated in MBh. Vii. 1-5; LBh, i.9-14; and SiDvr, Grahaganitha. I, 3-6.
5. Kali Yuga (Devanāgarī: कलियुग [kəli juɡə], lit. "age of [the demon] Kali", or "age of vice") is the last of the four stages the world goes through as part of the cycle of yugas described in the Indian scriptures. The other ages are Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga and Dvapara Yuga. The duration and chronological starting point in human history of Kali Yuga has given rise to different evaluations and interpretations. According to one of them, the Surya Siddhanta, Kali Yuga began at midnight (00:00) on 18 February 3102 BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar, or 23 January 3102 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. This date is also considered by many Hindus to be the day that Krishna left Earth to return to his abode. Most interpreters of Hindu scriptures believe that Earth is currently in Kali Yuga. Many authorities such as Swami Sri Yukteswar, and Paramhansa Yogananda believe that it is now Dvapara Yuga. Many others like Aurbindo Ghosh have stated that Kali Yuga is now over. The Kali Yuga is sometimes thought to last 432,000 years, although other durations have been proposed.
6. Taken from Bina Chatterjee, “The Khanda – Khadyaka of Brahmagupta “. World Press, Calcutta 1970 Vol 1, Appendix VII p 281.
7. Taken from H.N. Russell, Dugan and J.Q. Stewart, Astronomy, Part 1: The Solar System, Revised editon, Ginn and Company, Boston, Appendix. Also The Sideral period of Moon’s apogee and ascending node are taken from P.C. Sengupta and N.C. Lahari’s introduction (P.xiv) to Babuaji Misra’s edition of Sripati Siddhanta sekhara.
8. See W.M. Smart, Text book on Sperical Astronomy, Cambridge. 1940, p 420 & p 621 of Bharatiya Sastra Manjusha of M.S. Sreedharan

9. ( Sanskrit) ( both Sanskrit and Tamil months follow same line of calender days). The days are also similar to western days. Sunday to Saturday it same.

1. Chaitra
2. Vaishākha
3. Jyaishtha
4. Āshādha
5. Shrāvana
6. Bhaadra or, Bhādrapada
7. Āshwini
8. Kārtika
9. Agrahayana or, Mārgashīrsha
10. Pausha
11. Māgha
12. Phālguna

Tamil:
Tamil Calendar consists of 12 months starts with ‘Chithirai’ ends with ‘Panguni’.

It is a Solar Calendar, whose dates indicate the position of the earth on its revolution around the sun.
So the number of days varies between 29 and 32.
The following list compiles the months of the Tamil Calendar.


    Tamil                                 Gregorian Calendar equivalent        Western
1  Chithirai       mid-April to mid-May                                                           Aries
2  Vaikasi        mid-May to mid-June                                                           Taurus 
3  Aani           mid-June to mid-July                                                            Gemini
4  Aadi             mid-July to mid-August                                                      Cancer
5  Aavani       mid-August to mid-September                                            Leo
6  Puratasi    mid-September to mid-October                                             Virgo
7  Aippasi     mid-October to mid-November                                            Libra
8  Karthikai  mid-November to mid-December                                         Scorpio
9 Markazhi      mid-December to mid-January                                         Sagittarius
10 Thai        mid-January to mid-February                                              Capricorn
11 Masi      mid-February to mid-March                                                    Aquarius
12 Pankuni   mid-March to mid-April                                                       Pisces

Sunday - Nayiru or ravi var or Solar day
Monday - Thingal or somavar or Moon's day
Tuesday - Sevvai  or mangalvar or Mars day
Wednesday - Bhudan or budhvar or  Mercury day
Thursday - Vizayan or Birgaspathi var or guruvar or Jupiter day
Friday - Velli or Sukkravar or Venus day
Saturday - Sani / kari or Sani var or Saturn day

Lesser known facts of our mother system - the solar system

Major source : Wikipedia



Solar System Statistics
Sun a third generation star

Diameter of the Solar System: presently unknown (possibly 2 to 4 light years)
Distance from centre of Galaxy: 25 million light years
Orbital Period: 250 million years
Age: 4.6 billion years

Number of Planets: 8
Number of Dwarf Planets: 5
Number of Moons: 173

Rocky Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
Gas Giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
Dwarf Planets: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, MakeMake and Eris

Nearest Planet to Sun: Mercury (58 million km)
Farthest Planet from Sun: Neptune (4.5 billion km)
Farthest Man Made Object from Sun: Voyager 1 (17 billion km)
Largest Planet: Jupiter (Diameter 142,984 km)
Smallest Planet: Mercury (Diameter 4,879 km)

Largest Moon: Ganymede (Diameter 5,262 km)
Smallest Moon: S/2003 J 9 and S/2003 J 12 (Diameter 1 km)

Greatest Planetary Gravity: Jupiter (20.87 m/s2)
Greatest Planetary Density: Earth (5.515 g/cm3)
Greatest Planetary Mass: Jupiter (1.8987 x 1027 kg)
Greatest Planetary Volume: Jupiter (1.4255 x 1015 km3)

Lowest Planetary Gravity: Mars (3.693 m/s2)
Lowest Planetary Density: Saturn (0.7 g/cm3)
Lowest Planetary Mass: Mercury (3.3022 x 1023 kg)
Lowest Planetary Volume: Mercury (6.08272 x 1010 km3)

Earth in the Universe
Feature Size Notes Sources
Earth 12,700 km in diameter Our planet. [3]
Geospace 63,000 km Sunward side;
6,300,000 km trailing side The space dominated by Earth's magnetic field. [4] Orbit of the Moon 7,70,000 km across The average diameter of the orbit of the Moon relative to the Earth. [5]
Earth's orbit 300 million km across
2 AU[a] The average diameter of the orbit of the Earth relative to the Sun.
Contains the Sun, Mercury and Venus. [6] Inner Solar System 6 AU across Contains the Sun, the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) and the asteroid belt. [7] Outer Solar System 60 AU across Surrounds the inner Solar System; comprises the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune). [8] Kuiper belt 96 AU across Belt of icy objects surrounding the outer solar system. Contains the dwarf planets Pluto, Haumea and Makemake. [9] Heliosphere 160 AU across Maximum extent of the Solar wind and the interplanetary medium. [10][11] Scattered disk 200 AU across Region of sparsely scattered icy objects surrounding the Kuiper belt. Contains the dwarf planet Eris. [12]
Oort cloud[b] 100,000–200,000 AU across
2–4 light-years[c] Spherical shell of over a trillion comets. [13] Solar System 4 light-years across Our home planetary system. At this point, the Sun's gravity gives way to that of surrounding stars. [14] Local Interstellar Cloud 30 light-years across Interstellar cloud of gas through which the Sun and a number of other stars are currently travelling.[d] [15]
Local Bubble 210–815 light-years across Cavity in the interstellar medium in which our Sun and a number of other stars are currently travelling.[d]
Caused by a past supernova. [16][17] Gould Belt 3,000 light-years across Ring of young stars through which our Sun is currently travelling.[d] [18]
Orion Arm 10,000 light-years in length The spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy through which our Sun is currently travelling.[d]
[19] Orbit of the Solar System 56,000 light years across The average diameter of the orbit of the Solar System relative to the Galactic Centre. Our Sun's orbital radius is roughly 28,000 light years, or slightly over half way to the galactic edge. One orbital period of our Solar System lasts between 225 and 250 million years. [20][21] Milky Way Galaxy 100,000 light-years across Our home galaxy, composed of 200 billion to 400 billion stars and filled with the interstellar medium. [22][23]
Milky Way subgroup 1.64 million light-years across
0.5 megaparsecs[e] The Milky Way and those satellite galaxies gravitationally bound to it, such as the Sagittarius Dwarf, the Ursa Minor Dwarf and the Canis Major Dwarf. Cited distance is the orbital diameter of the Leo I Dwarf galaxy, the most distant galaxy in the Milky Way subgroup. [24][25] Local Group 3 megaparsecs across Group of at least 47 galaxies. Dominated by Andromeda (the largest), The Milky Way and Triangulum; the remainder are small dwarf galaxies. [26] Virgo Supercluster 33 megaparsecs across The supercluster of which our Local Group is a part; comprises roughly 100 galaxy groups and clusters. [27][28] Pisces-Cetus Supercluster Complex 300 megaparsecs across The galaxy filament of which the Virgo Supercluster is a part. [29] Observable universe 28,000 megaparsecs across The large-scale structure of the universe consists of more than 100 billion galaxies, arranged in millions of superclusters, galactic filaments, and voids, creating a foam-like superstructure. [30][31]
Universe Minimum of 28,000 megaparsecs Beyond the observable universe lies the unobservable regions where no light from those regions has reached the Earth yet. No information is available about the region, as light is the fastest travelling medium of information. However, since there is no reason to suppose different natural laws, the universe is likely to contain more galaxies in the same foam-like superstructure.
a 1 AU or astronomical unit is the distance between the Earth and the Sun, or 150 million km. Earth's orbital diameter is twice its orbital radius, or 2 AU.b Existence is hypothetical.c One light-year is the distance light travels in a year; equivalent to ~9.5 trillion km or 63,240 AUd The Sun is not gravitationally tied to any larger structures within the Galaxy.[32] These regions simply mark its current location in its orbit around the Galactic centre.e One megaparsec is equivalent to one million parsecs or 3.26 million light-years. A parsec is the distance at which a star's parallax as viewed from Earth is equal to one second of arc.

Taking the Oort Cloud into consideration will increase the number a great deal. But my understanding is that the Apha-Centauri system lies with 5 light years of our Sun.

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/970717b.html

http://www.thenakedscientists.com/HTML/content/latest-questions/question/1115/


References

1. ^ Robert P Kirshner (2002). The Extravagant Universe: Exploding Stars, Dark Energy and the Accelerating Cosmos. Princeton University Press. p. 71. ISBN 0-691-05862-8.
2. ^ Klaus Mainzer and J Eisinger (2002). The Little Book of Time. Springer. ISBN 0-387-95288-8.. P. 55.
3. ^ Various (2000). David R. Lide. ed. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC. ISBN 0-8493-0481-4.
4. ^ Amara Graps (2000). "The Earth's Magnetosphere". Max Planck Institute. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
5. ^ NASA Moon factsheet and NASA Solar System Exploration Moon Factsheet NASA Retrieved on 2008-11-17
6. ^ NASA Earth factsheet and NASA Solar System Exploration Factsheet NASA Retrieved on 2008-11-17
7. ^ Petit, J.-M.; Morbidelli, A.; Chambers, J. (2001). "The Primordial Excitation and Clearing of the Asteroid Belt" (PDF). Icarus 153 (2): 338–347. Bibcode 2001Icar..153..338P. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6702. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
8. ^ NASA Neptune factsheet and NASA Solar System Exploration Neptune Factsheet NASA Retrieved on 2008-11-17
9. ^ M. C. De Sanctis, M. T. Capria, and A. Coradini (2001). "Thermal Evolution and Differentiation of Edgeworth–Kuiper Belt Objects". The Astronomical Journal 121 (5): 2792–2799. Bibcode 2001AJ....121.2792D. doi:10.1086/320385. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
10. ^ NASA/JPL (2009). "Cassini's Big Sky: The View from the Center of Our Solar System". Retrieved 2009-12-20.
11. ^ Fahr, H. J.; Kausch, T.; Scherer, H.; Kausch; Scherer (2000). "A 5-fluid hydrodynamic approach to model the Solar System-interstellar medium interaction" (PDF). Astronomy & Astrophysics 357: 268. Bibcode 2000A&A...357..268F. See Figures 1 and 2.
12. ^ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 136199 Eris (2003 UB313)". 2008-10-04 last obs. Retrieved 2009-01-21. (Aphelion of Eris, the farthest known scattered disk object)
13. ^ Alessandro Morbidelli (2005). "Origin and dynamical evolution of comets and their reservoirs". arXiv:astro-ph/0512256 [astro-ph].
14. ^ Littmann, Mark (2004). Planets Beyond: Discovering the Outer Solar System. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 162–163. ISBN 978-0-486-43602-9.
15. ^ Mark Anderson, "Don't stop till you get to the Fluff", New Scientist no. 2585, 6 January 2007, pp. 26–30
16. ^ DM Seifr et al; Lallement; Crifo; Welsh (1999). "Mapping the Countours of the Local Bubble". Astronomy and Astrophysics 346: 785–797. Bibcode 1999A&A...346..785S.
17. ^ Local Chimney and Superbubbles, Solstation.com
18. ^ S. B. Popov, M. Colpi, M. E. Prokhorov, A. Treves and R. Turolla (2003). "Young isolated neutron stars from the Gould Belt". Astronomy and Astrophysics 406 (1): 111–117. arXiv:astro-ph/0304141. Bibcode 2003A&A...406..111P. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030680. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
19. ^ Harold Spencer Jones, T. H. Huxley, Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Royal Institution of Great Britain, v. 38–39
20. ^ Eisenhauer, F.; et al. (2003). "A Geometric Determination of the Distance to the Galactic Center". Astrophysical Journal 597 (2): L121–L124. arXiv:astro-ph/0306220. Bibcode 2003ApJ...597L.121E. doi:10.1086/380188.
21. ^ Leong, Stacy (2002). "Period of the Sun's Orbit around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year)". The Physics Factbook.
22. ^ Christian, Eric; Samar, Safi-Harb. "How large is the Milky Way?". Retrieved 2007-11-28.
23. ^ Frommert, H.; Kronberg, C. (August 25, 2005). "The Milky Way Galaxy". SEDS. Retrieved 2007-05-09.
24. ^ I. D. Karachentsev, V. E. Karachentseva, W. K. Hutchmeier, D. I. Makarov (2004). "A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies". Astronomical Journal 127 (4): 2031–2068. Bibcode 2004AJ....127.2031K. doi:10.1086/382905.
25. ^ Andreas Brunthaler, Mark J. Reid, et. al. (4 March 2005). "The Geometric Distance and Proper Motion of the Triangulum Galaxy (M33)". Science 307 (5714): 1440–1443. arXiv:astro-ph/0503058. Bibcode 2005Sci...307.1440B. doi:10.1126/science.1108342. PMID 15746420.
26. ^ "The Local Group of Galaxies". University of Arizona. Students for the Exploration and Development of Space. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
27. ^ cfa.harvard.edu, The Geometry of the Local Supercluster, John P. Huchra, 2007 (accessed 12-12-2008)
28. ^ "Stars, Galaxies and Cosmology". Department of Mathematics, University of Auckland. Retrieved 2009-10-03.
29. ^ John noble Wilford (1987-11-10). "Massive Clusters of Galaxies Defy Concepts of the Universe". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-11-01.
30. ^ Mackie, Glen (2002-02-01). "To see the Universe in a Grain of Taranaki Sand". Swinburne University. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
31. ^ Lineweaver, Charles; Tamara M. Davis (2005). "Misconceptions about the Big Bang". Scientific American. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
32. ^ "How often does the Sun pass through a spiral arm in the Milky Way?". Cornell University. Retrieved 2009-10-03.

Earth's location in the universe

Earth → Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion–Cygnus Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Pisces-Cetus Supercluster Complex → Observable universe → Universe

Each arrow should be read as "within" or "part of".

இரவில் மணி அறிதல்: தமிழில் ஒற்றைப்பாடல்

சித்திரைக்குப்பூசமுதல் சீராவணிக்கனுஷமாம்

அத்தனுசுக்குத்திரட்டாதியாம்; நித்த நித்தம்

ஏதுச்சமானாலும் இரண்டேகாலிற் பெருக்கி

மாதமைந்து தள்ளி மதி.

இப்பாடலைக்கொண்டு ஒரு தோராயமான முறையில், இரவில் நட்சத்திரங்கள் உச்சத்தில் வருவதைப்பார்த்து அப்போதைய நேரத்தை சொல்லிவிடலாம். ஆனால் 27 நட்சத்திரங்களை அவைகளுடைய வரிசையில் தெரிந்துகொள்வதோடு மட்டுமல்லாமல், வானத்தில் அவைகளை அடையாளம் காட்டவும் தெரியவேண்டும்.

பொருள்: சித்திரையிலிருந்து நான்கு மாதங்களுக்கு (இது முதல் சுற்று) பூச நட்சத்திரத்திலிருந்து எண்ணு; ஆவணியிலிருந்து நான்கு மாதத்திற்கு (இது இரண்டாவது சுற்று)அநுஷ நட்சத்திரத்திலிருந்து எண்ணு. மார்கழி மாதத்திலிருந்து நான்கு மாதத்திற்கு (இது மூன்றாவது சுற்று) உத்திரட்டாதியிலிருந்து எண்ணு. ஒவ்வொரு நேரமும் எந்த நட்சத்திரம் உச்சத்தில் காணப்படுகிறதோ அந்த எண்ணிக்கையை இரண்டேகாலால் பெருக்கி, வரும் தொகையிலிருந்து, 5m ஐக்கழிக்கவேண்டும். இங்கு m என்பது, நாம் பார்க்கும் மாதம் எதுவோ அது எந்தச் சுற்றில் வருகிறதோ அந்தச் சுற்றில் அது எத்தனையாவது மாதம் என்ற எண்ணிக்கை.இப்படி கணிக்கப்படும் எண் தான் சூரியன் அஸ்தமித்ததிலிருந்து எத்தனை நாழிகைகள் ஆகியிருக்கின்றன என்பதைத் தெரிவிக்கும் எண்.(1 நாழிகை = 24 நிமிடங்கள்).

எடுத்துக்காட்டுகள்: எ.கா.1: வைகாசி 2ம் தேதியன்று இரவில் நாம் சுவாதி (Arcturus: Alpha-Bootis) நட்சத்திரத்தை உச்சத்தில் பார்ப்பதாகக் கொள்வோம்.வைகாசி மாதம் முதல் சுற்றில் இரண்டாவது மாதம். அதனால் 5m = 10.பூச நட்சத்திரத்திலிருந்து எண்ணினால் சுவாதி எட்டாவது நட்சத்திரம். 8 x 2 1/4 = 18. ஆக நமக்குக் கிடைக்கும் எண்ணிக்கை 18-10 = 8. 8 நாழிகைகள் = 3 மணி 12 நிமிடம்.இதனால் அப்போதைய நேரம் ஏறக்குறைய 9-12 p.m.

எ.கா. 2: மாசி மாதம் 30ம் தேதியன்று இரவில் சித்திரை (Spica)யை உச்சத்தில் பார்ப்பதாகக்கொள்வோம். மாசி மாதம் மூன்றாவது சுற்றில் மூன்றாவது மாதம். அதனால் 5m = 5x3 = 15.இப்பொழுது உத்திரட்டாதியிலிருந்து எண்ணவேண்டும். உத்திரட்டாதியிலிருந்து சித்திரை 16வது நட்சத்திரம். இதை இரண்டெகாலால் பெருக்க, கிடைப்பது 36. 36 - 15 =21. சூரியாஸ்தமனத்திலிருந்து 21 நாழிகை கணக்கிட்டால், இரவு 2-24 A.M. என்பது அப்பொதைய நேரத்தின் தோரயமான கணிப்பு.

எனது தாய்வழி பாட்டனார் இதைப் போல் பாடல்களைக் கொண்டு இரவில் மணி சொல்லுவார்! ஒரு ஐந்து நிமிடம் முன்பு  / பின்பு இருக்கும். நான் அவரிடம் இருந்து வானியல் மற்றும் வானசாஸ்திர கலையை சிறிது அளவு கற்றேன்!

List of English words of Indian Origins

English has lot of loaned words . I will begin with the words that were loaned to that from my native Tamil and other Indian languages. We Indians are also native speakers of English. Since, English is the defacto language and in many cases or regions it is the Dejure language for conversation and day to day affairs although several states have their own language as THE DEJURE language for the state.

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  List of English words of Tamil origin
  catamaran
  from Tamil கட்டுமரம் kattumaram ("kattu"=tie up, "maram"=tree/wood) (Source: OED, AHD, MWD)
  corundum
  from a Tamil word for 'ruby', குருந்தம் kuruntham or குருவிந்தம் kuruvintham (Source: OED)
  Cardamom
  From Tamil Yelakkai or ஏலக்காய் / ஏலக்கை. Cardamom is grown on the slopes of Western ghats and the hills that are home to this spice is called CARDAMOM HILLS.
  mulligatawny
  from Tamil மிளகுத்தண்ணீர் milagu-tanneer from milagu black pepper and tanneer, water (Source: OED, AHD, MWD)
  pariah
  from Tamil பறையர் paṟaiyar, plural of பறையன் paṟaiyaṉ "drummer". The meaning of "drummer" dates to 1613 (via Portuguese ?), but the current extended meaning of "outcast" for pariah is first attested in 1819. (Source: OED, AHD, MWD)
  patchouli
  from Tamil pachchai பச்சை (green), and ellai இலை (leaf).
  pandal
  from Tamil பந்தல் pandhal (Source: OED)
  tutenag
  from Tamil துத்தநாகம் thuthanaagam meaning "raw zinc" (Source: OED)
  vetiver
  from Tamil வெட்டிவேர் vettiver; a tropical Indian grass; Botanical name: Vetiveria zizanioides; its aromatic roots are used for weaving screens and baskets and the oil in perfumery (source: AHD)
  anicut
  from Tamil anaikattu, ("anai"=dam, "kattu"=building/structure) (source:MWD)
  Palmyra
  from Tamil Pannamarrum/Pannai, (Marram = Tree)
  English words that ultimately have a Tamil origin
  candy
  late 13c., "crystalized sugar," from O.Fr. çucre candi "sugar candy," ultimately from Arabic qandi, from Pers. qand "cane sugar," probably from Skt. khanda "piece (of sugar)," perhaps from Dravidian (cf. Tamil kantu "candy," kattu "to harden, condense"). As a verb, attested from 1530s; hence, candied (c.1600).
  cheroot
  via French cheroute, from Tamil சுருட்டு suruṭṭu, roll or rolled (Source: OED, AHD, MWD)
  Cochin-china
  old name of a region and French colony in southern Vietnam, from Fr. Cochin-China, from Portuguese corruption of Ko-chen, of uncertain meaning; the China added to distinguish it from the town and port of Cochin in southwest India, the name of which is Tamil, perhaps from கொஞ்சம் koncham "little," in reference to the river there.
  cot
  "small bed", 1630s via Hindi khat "couch, hammock," from Skt. khatva (Dravidian source: Tamil கட்டில் kattil "bedstead").
  cowrie
  "small shell", via Hindi and Urdu kauri, from Mahrati kavadi, from Skt. kaparda (Source : Tamil கொடு kotu "shell").
  curry
  via Hindi-Urdu from Tamil கறி kaṟi "sauce" (Source: OED, AHD, MWD)
  pagoda
  1580s, from Port. pagode (early 16c.), from a corruption of Pers. butkada, from but "idol" + kada "dwelling." Or perhaps from or influenced by Tamil pagavadi "house belonging to a deity," from Skt. bhagavati "goddess," fem. of bhagavat "blessed, adorable," from *bhagah "good fortune," from PIE base *bhag- "to share out, apportion".
  peacock
  poucock, from M.E. po "peacock" + coc (see cock (n.)). Po is from O.E. pawa "peafowl," from L. pavo (gen. pavonis), which, with Gk. taos said to be ultimately from Tamil tokei(but perhaps is imitative; Latin represented the peacock's sound as paupulo). The Latin word also is the source of O.H.G. pfawo, Ger. Pfau, Du. pauw, O.C.S. pavu. Used as the type of a vainglorious person from late 14c. Its flesh superstitiously believed to be incorruptible (even St. Augustine credits this). "When he sees his feet, he screams wildly, thinking that they are not in keeping with the rest of his body."
  poppadom
  via Hindi-Urdu or Punjabi, from Malayalam or Tamil பப்படம் pappaṭam, ultimately Sanskrit पर्पट parpaṭa "a kind of thin cake made of rice or pease-meal and baked in grease" or "a thin crisp cake" (Source: OED)
  portia tree
  ultimately from Tamil பூவரசு puvarasu (Source: OED)
  rice
  The English word rice is not borrowed from the Greek word "oruza" ((μαγειρ.) ὄρύζα), as previously thought (and found in older handbooks), nor is it a direct borrowing from Tamil அரிசி arici. The relation between Engl. rice and Tamil அரிசி arici is in fact more complicated, as demonstrated in more recent researches. Although Engl. rice is indeed ultimately from (Old) Tamil, the "rice" word has entered English, through several intermediary languages, notably via Church Latin, (Old) French, (Old) Spanish, (Old) Italian and Arabic. tuuf shanthi ramya bharatji umamageswari rajeswari

Major English dictionaries like Oxford English Dictionary, American Heritage Dictionary, and Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, do not conclusively attribute Tamil origin to these words.
anaconda
possibly from Tamil ஆனை கொன்றன் aanai kondran, elephant killer. OED gives derivation from Tamil anai-kondra (anaik-konda), meaning "which killed an elephant.” AHD, MWD, New Oxford American Dictionary give origin from Sinhalese හෙනකඳයා henakaňdayā, "whipsnake".
cash
Of disputed origin. The primary meaning of the word cash, "paper money", or "money" in general, may be from French caisse, Provençal caissa, Italian cassa "money box" from Vulgar Latin capsa "chest, box". A secondary meaning of cash, referring to any of the various coins used in southern India and China, could be from Malayalam or Tamil காசு kācu (Source: OED, AHD, MWD)
coolie
Of disputed origin. OED states Tamil is proposed by some as the language of origin, from கூலி cooli a Tamil word for "labour". Alternatively, it could refer to a tribe from Gujarat, whose members were frequently employed as manual laborers.
ginger
The English word ginger is derived from the Middle English gingivere, which in turn comes from Old English gingifer and from Old French gingivre, both from Medieval Latin gingiber. The Latin word is derived from Greek ζιγγίβερις zingiberis, of Middle Indic origin (akin to Pali सिन्गिभेरम् singiveram), from Dravidian roots, akin to Tamil இஞ்சி வேர்
iñcivēr -- இஞ்சி iñci = ginger (of southeast Asian origin) + Tamil வேர் vēr = root.
godown
via Malay gudang, from a Dravidian origin, cf. Kannada gadangu, Tamil கிட்டங்கி (கிடங்கு) Kittangi (kidangu/kodangu) "store room" (Source: OED)
Moringa
exact origin unknown, cf. Tamil முருங்கை murungai , Tamil word for drumstick (Source: OED, AHD)

The butcher of Amritser Colonel Reginald Edward Harry Dyer CB

Present Indian Generation has to know this man and what scarifies we Indians gave to win our freedom from Britain: Independence is not a easy going and getting one. USA and India Both paid the price! A huge price for upholding their freedom!   USA too lost many lives in their war to freedom!



Colonel Reginald Edward Harry Dyer CB (9 October 1864 – 23 July 1927) was a British Indian Army officer who as a temporary Brigadier-General was responsible for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar (in the British India province of Punjab). Dyer was removed from duty but he became a celebrated hero in Britain among people with connections to the British Raj. Historians consider the episode was a decisive step towards the end of British rule in India

Dyer was born in Murree, in the Punjab province of British India, which is now in Pakistan. He was the son of an Irish brewer who managed the famed Murree Brewery. He spent his childhood in Simla and received his early education at the Bishop Cotton School in Simla. He attended Midleton College, County Cork, Ireland between 1875 and 1881. In 1885, soon after attendance at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst he was commissioned into the Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) as a Lieutenant, and performed riot control duties in Belfast (1886) and served in the Third Burmese War (1886–87). He was then transferred to the British Indian Army, joining initially the Bengal Staff Corps as a Lieutenant in 1887 and being attached to the 39th Bengal Infantry, later transferring to the 29th Punjabis. He served in the latter in the Black Mountain campaign (1888), the relief of Chitral (1895) (being promoted Captain in 1896) and the Mahsud blockade (1901–02). In 1901 he was appointed a Deputy Assistant Adjutant General. He was then transferred to the 25th Punjabis. In August 1903 he was promoted to Major, and served with the Landi Kotal Expedition (1908). He commanded the 25th Punjabis in India and Hong Kong and was promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel in 1910. During World War I (1914–18), he commanded the Seistan Force, for which he was mentioned in despatches and made a Companion of the Bath (CB). He was promoted Colonel in 1915, and was made a temporary Brigadier-General in 1916. In 1919, about a month after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, in the Third Anglo-Afghan War, his Brigade relieved the garrison of Thal, for which he was again mentioned in despatches. 5th Brigade at Jamrud was his last command posting for a few months during 1919. He retired on 17 July 1920, retaining the rank of Colonel.

Crawling order

Brigadier Dyer designated the spot where Miss Marcella Sherwood was assaulted sacred and daytime pickets were placed at either end of the street. Anyone wishing to proceed in the street between 6am and 8pm was made to crawl the 200 yards (180 m) on all fours, lying flat on their bellies. The order was not required at night due to a curfew. The order effectively closed the street. The houses did not have any back doors and the inhabitants could not go out without climbing down from their roofs. This order was in effect from 19 April until 25 April 1919. No doctor or supplier was allowed in, resulting in the sick being unattended.

Brigadier Dyer is known best for the orders which he gave on 13 April 1919 in Amritsar. It was by his command that 50 troops, including 25 Gurkhas of 1st/9th Gurkha Rifles, 25 Pathans and Baluch of 54th Sikhs and 59th Sindh Rifles, all armed with .303 Lee-Enfield rifles opened fire on a gathering of unarmed civilians, including women and children, at the Jallianwalla Bagh in what came to be known later as the Amritsar massacre.

The civilians had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh to participate with the annual Baisakhi celebrations which are both a religious and a cultural festival of the Punjabis. Being from outside the city, they may have been unaware of the martial law that had been imposed. The Bagh-space comprised 6 to 7 acres (28,000 m2) and was walled on all sides except for five entrances. Four of these entrances were very narrow, admitting only a few people at a time. The fifth entrance was blocked by the armed soldiers, as well as by two armoured cars with machine guns. (These vehicles were unable to pass through the entrance.) Upon entering the park, the General ordered the troops to shoot directly into the assembled gathering. Shooting continued until his troops' supply of 1,650 rounds of ammunition was almost exhausted. The shooting continued unabated for about 10 minutes.

From time to time, Dyer "checked his fire and directed it upon places where the crowd was thickest"; he did this not because the crowd was slow to disperse, but because he (the General) "had made up his mind to punish them for having assembled there." Some of the soldiers initially shot into the air, at which General Dyer shouted: "Fire low. What have you been brought here for?"Later, Dyer's own testimony revealed that the crowd was not given any warning to disperse and he was not remorseful for having ordered his troops to shoot.

ஸ்ரோதஸ்வனி - Srotaswini Raga

இந்தக் கட்டுரை ஆங்கிலம் மற்றும் தமிழில் தட்டச்சுப் செய்யப்பட்டுள்ளது. சில விஷயங்கள் தமிழுக்கு மற்றம் செய்ய முடியவில்லை ஆகவே !!

ஸ்ரோதஸ்வனி இராகதிற்குப் செல்லும் முன் பெயர் காரணம் மற்றும் அறிவியல் சார்ந்த அலகுகளையும் சற்று நோக்குவோம் : Before we go to the raga, we just have an glance on the naming reasons!

'srotas' means flow of a river. srotaswini is the name of a river and is also a rare raga of Carnatic music. Srothaswini - S G2 M1 P N3 S | S N3 P M1 G2 S . Srotas, or Shrotas (pronounced /ˈʃroʊtɑːs/ US dict: shrō′·tâs, n.pl., from Sanskrit स्रोतस् srótas - the current, stream, torrent, channel, course ) -- in Ayurveda, the 13 types of channels used to convey dhatus and malas. Any injury to the shrotas leads to poor circulation, thus resulting in disease. Eridanus constellation is called srotaswini in Sanskrit. Srotaswini  is a pentatonic raga : S G2 M1 P N3


Eridanus /ɨˈrɪdənəs/ is a constellation. It is represented as a river; its name is the Ancient Greek name for the Po River. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is the sixth largest of the modern constellations.




The stars that correspond to Eridanus are also depicted as a river in Indian astronomy starting close to the head of Orion just below Auriga. Eridanus is called Srotaswini in Sanskrit, srótas meaning the course of a river or stream. Specifically, it is depicted as the Ganges on the head of Dakshinamoorthy or Nataraja, a Hindu incarnation of Siva. Dakshinamoorthy himself is represented by the constellation Orion.

ஸ்ரோதஸ்வனி என்ற அபூர்வ ராகமானது, கீரவாணி என்ற மேளகர்த்தா ராகத்தின் ஜன்யமாகும். சரியான பெயர் ஸ்ரோதஸ்வனியா அல்லது ஸ்ரோதஸ்வினியா என்று தெரியவில்லை.

இதன் ஆரோகணம், அவரோகணம் வருமாறு:-

ஆரோகணம் - S G2 M1 P N3 S
அவரோகணம் - S N3 P M1 G2 S

இந்த அபூர்வ ராகம், கர்னாடக இசையிலும், இந்துஸ்தானி இசையிலும் பெரிதும் பயன்படுத்தப்பட்டதாகத் தெரியவில்லை. திரையிசையிலும் பெரிதும் பயன்படுத்தப்படாத இந்த இராகத்தில் ஐந்து  சினிமாப்பாடல்கள் இசைஞானி இளையராஜா சமைத்துள்ளார்.

கர்நாடக இசையில் இந்த இராகத்தைக் கேட்க வேண்டுமென்றால், வயலின் எம்பார் கண்ணனும், கீ போர்ட் சத்யநாராயணவும் சேர்ந்து வாசித்துள்ள ஒரு அருமையான ஆலாபனையைக் கேட்க வேண்டும். கடந்த வருடம் லாஸ் ஏஞ்கல்ஸ் நகரில் இதனை வாசித்துள்ளார்கள். இந்த ஆலாபனையைக் கேட்கும்போது யாராக இருந்தாலும் சில நிமிடங்களுக்காவது பரவச நிலை அடைவது நிச்சயம்.




இசைஞானி இளையராஜா இந்த இராகத்தில் சமைத்து உள்ள ஐந்து திரை இசைப் பாடல்கள் :

முதல் பாடல் "நீங்கள் கேட்டவை" என்ற படத்தில் இடம் பெற்ற "ஓ. வசந்த ராஜா" என்ற பாடலாகும். இதுவும் ஸ்ரோதஸ்வனியில் அமைந்த ஒரு இனிமையான பாடலாகும்.



இரண்டாவது பாடல் "பூந்தோட்டக் காவல்காரன்" என்ற படத்தில் இடம் பெரும், "சிந்திய வெண்மணி சிப்பியில் முத்தாச்சு" என்ற பாடல். ஜேசுதாஸ் மற்றும் சுசீலா குரலில் பாடப்பட்ட ஒரு இனிமையான பாடல்.



மூன்றாவது பாடல்:

நீதானா அந்தக் குயில் படத்தில் பூஜை கேத்த பூ விது




நான்காவது பாடல்:


Jai Chiranjeeva Jagadeka Veera - Jagadeka Veerudu Athiloka Sundari (Telugu)

 


ஐந்தாவது பாடல்:


sumam sumam prathi sumam sumam – Maharishi ( Telugu)